About Indonesia
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- Government
- The People
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History
Colonialism
With the coming of the Netherlands East Indies Company (VOC), Indonesia partly entered a period of colonialism, poverty and misery. Owing to superior armament and through a “divide et impera” policy of showing discords among the population, the VOC succeeded in expanding its power and territory. The Dutch took drastic and cruel steps to sightened their monopoly and keep up the prices of spices.
Private spice plantations in Maluku were destroyed and expeditions undertaken to punish the population resistance called “Houngi Expedition”. The sultans and princess were maltreated and forced to sign agreements to acknowledge the authority of the VOC, and thus became subordinates to the VOC. In 1799, the VOC was declared bankrupt and all its proprieties were transferred to the Dutch Government.
The occupation of the Netherlands by the French during the Napoleonic War, brought Indonesia, under the rule of the British East India Company (1811-1816).
Sir Thomas Stampord Raffles, who during the British temporary rule Liutenant-Governor General of Java and dependencies, abolished the slade trade, introduced partial self-government and re stored the Borobudur temple.
After Napoleon’s downfall, the Dutchreturned to Indonesia and resumed their colonial policy, exploiting the country’s natural resources at the cost of the interests of the people, who continued to resist Dutch colonizers. Fierce battles broke out everywhere, led by brave patriots like Thomas Matulessy (Maluku Uprising, 1816-1818), Prince Diponegoro (Java War), 1825-1830), Cik Di Tiro and Teuku Umar (Aceh War, 1873-1903), Teuku Imam Bonjol (Padri War, 1830-1837 in West Sumatra), and Sisingamangaraja (Batak War, 1907), However all these wars of independence were suppressed and their leaders imprisoned or exiled.
In 1893-1931 Governor general Van den Bosch imposed the “Tanam Paksa” system whereby the people was forced to plant commercial crops and sacrificed cultivation of their staple food. Following criticisms voiced by Dutch Scholars, among others by Douwes Dekker in the Netherlands East Indies as well as in the Netherlands itself, the Dutch Administration introduced an “ethical policy” in 1901 which was aimed at increasing education and improving agriculture but in reality brought little benefit to the population. The “Volksraad” of the “People’s Council” established in 1918, consisted mainly of Europeans. School were built but their number was very small. At the outbreak of World War II, the Indonesian people were still poor and the rate of illiteracy stood at 93%. The unsuccessful wars of independence by of waging an organized struggle. This period of “national awakening” was heralded by Boedi Oetomo, founded on May 20, 1908 by students of the Medical School (Stovia) in Jakarta, such as Wahidin Sudirohusodo and Sutomo. Other organizations came into being soon after wards. All has as their ultimate aim the establishment of “Indonesia Merdeka” an independent Indonesian state.
Realizing that unity was imperative to cope with Dutch “divide-and-rule” policy, the youth, at their second progress on October 28, 1928, called for unity among the Indonesian youth and pledged allegiance to “One Nation”, Indonesia, One Country, Indonesia, One Language, Bahasa Indonesia”. In the spirit of unity pledged by youth, women’s organizations from over the country held their first conference in Yogyakarta, on December 22, 1928, and merged into a single organization, the Indonesian Woman’s Congress. Youth organizations such as Young Sumatra, Young Java, Young Minahasa, Young Ambon, ect., were also merged into “Young Indonesia” (Indonesia Muda).
World War II made an end to Dutch domination when the Dutch armed forces surrendered to the Japanese on March 7, 1942. The years of Japanese occupation (1942-1945) was a period of hardship, poverty, famine and hard labour. Japanese propaganda for a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere became very unpopular. Uprising and rebellion arouse in many parts of the country. Under the pressure of the nationalists, the Japanese authorities were brought to recognize the Red-and-White as the national flag, Indonesia Raya as the national anthem, and Bahasa Indonesia as the national language.
The Republic of Indonesia
On August 17, 1945, three days after Japan’s unconditional surrendered to the Allies, the Indonesians proclaimed their independence and established the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia covering the territory of the former Netherlands East Indies. Having suffered from the bitter experience of the Dutch “divide et impera” policy, the national leaders held the view that the form of government through which a just and prosperous society could be reached was a unitary state. Soekarno and Mohammad Hatta became the President and Vice-President of the new state which was based on the sate philosophy of Pancasila comprising the following five principles: Belief in One and Only God, Just and Civilized Humanity. The Unity of Indonesia, Democracy Guided by the Inner Wisdom of Deliberations amongst Representatives, and Social Justice for the Whole of the People of Indonesia.
On August 18, 1945, the state constitution, often referred to as the Constitution of the Proclamation, was adopted together with the formation of the House of Representatives, Supreme Advisory Council, Supreme Audit Board, and people’s Consultative Assembly as the embodiment of the people’s sovereignty.
The Red-and-White was officially accepted as the national flag, and Bahasa Indonesia as the national language. Again, Indonesians had to face the Dutch, who wishing to reinstate their colonial rule in Indonesia had smuggled military troops into the allied forces who came to Indonesia in September 1945 to disarm the Japanese and repatriate Allied Prisoners of War and Internees (APWI).
Consequently, bloody battles broke out in Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya and other major cities. During five years of physical struggle, “Dutch sponsored puppet states” were establish, such as the State of East Indonesia, South Sumatra, Bangka, Madura, etc. and agreements concluded for a peaceful settlement with the Dutch.
The Linggarjati Agreement signed on March25, 1947, under the good offices of Britain’s Lord Killearn resulted in the “de facto” recognition of the Republic of Java, Madura and Sumatra.
The Renville Agreement was signed on board of the USS Renville on January 17, 1948, to end the Dutch all-out attack upon the Republic, or what they called a “police action” launched on July 21, 1947. Following the occoupation of Yogyakarta and the arrest of President Soekarno, Vice President Mohammad Hatta, Syahrir and other republican leaders during the second Dutch military attack in December 1948, Indonesian freedom fighters commenced waging a guerrilla warfare under General Soedirman, while an emergency government of the Republic of Indonesia was set up in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, under Syarifuddin Prawiranegara, as the interim 2nd president.
On January 28, 1949, the Security Council adopted a resolution for discontinuation of hostilities, the release of the Republican leaders, who had been brought to Bangka Island off the east coast of Sumatra, and their return to Yogyakarta.
The “Roem-Van Rooyen” Agreement provided for the return of Yogyakarta to the Republic and the gradual withdrawal of Dutch troops, before the holding of a round Table conference on the basis of transfer on sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia, on December 27, 1949. Its consisting of 16 states which were associated with the Netherlands in a symbolic confederation under the Queen of the Netherlands, with a federal constitution and a government system based on parliamentary democracy.
On August 17, 1950, Indonesia abandoned its federal character and regained its original status of a Unitary State.
The first year of existence of the young republic were years full of unrest and rebellion, the separatist movement of “Darul Islam” fanatics in West Java (1947) aims at established an Islamic state; the Communist in Madiun (East Java) under Muso (1948); the coup d’etat attempt by Sultan Hamid Alkadri of Pontianak, West Kalimantan (1950); Army Captain Andi Aziz in South Sulawesi (1950): the South maluku Uprising (1950) under Soumokil who attempt to establish the so called “Republic of South Mollucas” (RMS); the revolt of Teuku Daud Beureuh in Aceh (1953); PRRI in West Sumatra (1958-1960); PERMESTA in North Sulawesi (1958-1960); and finally the abortive coup d’eat of the Indonesian Communist Party on September 30, 1965. These various rebellions were aimed at either reinstating the government, and even at changing the state ideology. These challenges were overcome, and the Republic retained its unitary character, owing to the faithful observance of Pancasila and its five philosophy principles.
To strengthen solidarity and unity among the nations of Asia and Africa, Indonesia was host to the Asian-African Conference held in Bandung West Java. The conference which was attended by 24 Asian-African countries and lasted from 18-24 April 1955, produced the Declaration on the Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation, and the “Dasasila” or the ten Principles by which states may coexist peacefully.
On February 13, 1956, Indonesia annulled the Round Table Conference Agreement of 1949, as a reaction to Dutch non-cooperation in solving the problem of West Irian (Irian Barat) whose future, according to the agreement, was to have been determined through negotiations between the parties sovereignty.
Considering the bilateral negotiations which had come to nothing and the inability of the United Nations to settle the West Irian dispute, Indonesia resorted to a total confrontation with the Dutch. Diplomatic relations were broken off and Dutch-owned enterprises nationalized or taken over. On the 23rd January 1963, the Indonesian Government instructed Major General Soeharto (who later became the Second President of Indonesia) in his function Commander of “Mandala” Theater Army Command, to liberate West Irian from Dutch occupation to realize the People’s Threefold Command (Trikora).
The West Irian dispute which had dragged on for 13 years finally came to end with the signing of the New York Agreement on August 15, 1962. Under the terms of this agreement, the Dutch were to transfer the administration of West Irian, on October 1st, 1962, to UNTEA, which, in turn, would had it over to the Republic of Indonesia on May 1st, 1963.
With the return of Irian Barat in 1963, Indonesia’s territorial integrity from Sabang, the westernmost tip of the country, to Merauke, the easternmost corner of Irian Barat, was restored. Once again affirmed the implementation of the Act of free Choice (PEPERA) in 1969 and in pursuance of the New York Agreement, when the remain an integral part of the Republic of Indonesia.
In 1955, the first general Election was held to elect members of the House and the “Konstituante” (Constituent Assembly) who were assigned the task to draw up a new constitution. Of the 47 competing parties, four emerged as winners. The failure of the Constituent Assembly to carry out its assignment led to the Assembly’s dissolution by President Soekarno who on July 5, 1959, issued a Decree to readopt the 1945 Constitution with a Presidential Cabinet.
The period between 1950 and 1959, during which Indonesia practiced parliamentary democracy, was marked by instability and rivalry among the political parties and among government officials. Cabinet posts were continually reshuffled and not one cabinet was able to realize its program during that period.
Induced by Indonesian communist Party’s views. President Soekarno staged a confrontation against Malaysia which he regarded as being a “puppet” and satellite of the British Empire. Diplomatic relations with Malaysia were severed on 3rd September 1964. Indonesia had been a member of the United Nations since September 28, 1950, but withdrew on January 1, 1965, when Malaysia was accepted as member of the United Nations Security Council.
The Order Government
Over-confident of their strength, the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) attempted another coup on September 130, 1965. The uprising, however, was abrupt and quickly stamped out by the Armed Forces under Major General Soeharto, the Chief of the Army’s Strategic Command.
On the night of September 30, or more precisely in the early hours of October 1, 1965, armed PKI-men and members of Cakrabirawa, the President’s security guard, set out of kidnap, torture and kill six top Army Generals. Further on their bodies were damped in an abandoned well at Lubang Buaya, on the outskirts of Jakarta. The coup was staged in the wake of troop deployments to Kalimantan at the height of Indonesia’s, confrontation with Malaysia. Moreover, at the time, many cabinet members were attending a celebration of Chinese October revolution in Beijing. It was during this power vacuum that the communist struck again.
Under instruction from General Soeharto, crack troops of Army’s Commando Regiment (RPKAD) freed the central radio station (RRI) and the telecommunication center from communist occupation.
Students made for the streets in militant demonstrations to fight for a three points claim, or “Trikora”, that aimed to ban the PKI, replace Soekarno’s cabinet ministers, and cut down the prices of basic necessities. They set up a “street parliament” to gather the demands of the people.
Under these explosive conditions, President Soekarno eventually gave in and granted Soeharto full power to restore order and security in the country. The transfer of power was affected by a presidential order known as “The 11th of March Order” of 1966. Soon afterwards, on March 12, 1966, General Soeharto banned the PKI. This decision was endorsed and sanctioned by virtue of the Provisional People’s Consultative Assembly Decree No. XXV/MPRS/1966. He also formed a new cabinet, but Soekarno remained as Chief of executive. This brought dualism into the cabinet, particularly when Soekarno did not show support for the cabinet’s program to establish political and economic stability. Hence, a special session of the Provisional People’s Consultative Assembly (MPRS) was convened from March 7-12, 1967. The Assembly resolved Soekarno of his presidential duties and appointed Soeharto as Acting president, pending the election of anew President by an elected People’s Consultative Assembly.
The New Order to Reform Order Government
Since the outset of the First Five-Year Development Plan in 1969, Indonesia under the New Order Government of President Soeharto had endeavoured to achieve its national development goals. Indonesia, indeed, was able to achieve a substantial progress in various fields which had been enjoyed by the majority of Indonesian people. Indonesia had gained a success of national development, but unfortunately economic crisis, which began monetary crisis, struck Indonesia as of July 1997.
Since the middle of 1997, the standard of living of Indonesian people has dropped fast. The decline in the people’s standard of living was aggravated by various political tension arising from the 1997 general elections. The political system and interests of the community. This led to the occurrence of riots and disturbances. To a certain extend, these happenings reflected the less functioning of the Political order and of the government, finally causing this situation to develop into a political crisis.
This accumulation of the economic crisis and the political crisis became a triggered factor for crisis in confidence. This applied not just to officials and state-running institutions, but also began to touch on the system of values and the legal foundations that underpin the state running institutions.
A number of students demonstrated to summon for political and economic reformations. They demanded President Soeharto to step down and swept out corruption, collusion and nepotism. Critical moments prevailed in the capital city of Jakarta, and other towns from May 12 to 21, 1998.
On May 12, 1998, a tragedy happened in the Trisakti University Campus, causing the death of four students. On May 18, the leadership of the House suggested the President to resign. The president’s effort to accommodate the developing aspirations of the people by forming a reform provincial cabinet and a reform committee never materialized as there was no adequate support from various circles.
On May 21, 1998, finally, President Soeharto, after a 32 year rule under the New Order Government resigned. Pursuant to Article 8 of the 1945 Constitution and the People’s Consultative Assembly decree No. VII/MPR/1973, he handed over the country’s leader to Vice president Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie. Habibie took his oath of office before Chief Justice Sarwata to become Indonesia’s third President. Presiden Soeharto also disbanded the cabinet which he formed shortly after his re-election for a seventh five-year presidential term in March.
A day after his instalment as the third president, Habibie formed the Development Reform Cabinet. He pick up the ministers from the various political and social forces, including three politicians from the two minority parties, the United Development Party (PPP) and the Indonesian Democracy Party of Struggle (PDI), to provide the needed synergy. During the Presidency of B.J. Habibie Indonesia conducted the session of the people’ Consultative Assembly (MPR) in November 1998 and carried out general Election on June 7, 1999.
Indonesians vote for representatives at three levels: the House of Representatives (DPR), the Provincial Assemblies (DPRD I) and regency assemblies (DPRD II). Every citizen of Indonesia has the right to cast his/her vote in the election.
Politicaly parties in Indonesia were simplified in 1973. Since that time until the general election of 1997, there were two political parties, the United Development party (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan) and the Indonesian Democracy Party of Struggle (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia), plus the Functional Group (Golongan Karya), Golkar emerged as the winning party at every election ever held during the New Order Government.
Indonesia’s eight general election held in June, 7, 1999 was the first General Election in the Reform Order Government under the President B.J. Habibie Administration. Forty-eight (48) political parties contested for the election, under observation of both domestic and international observers and great coverage of free press. It was noted as the most democratic and transparent general election in Indonesia. People were to choose 462 legislators from at least 10,500 candidates from 48 political parties to represent them at 500-member House Representatives. The remaining 38 seats have been allocated to the military, whose members have relinquished their rights to vote.
The result of 1999 General Election are : the Indonesian Democracy Party of Struggle (PDI Perjuangan) headed by Megawati Soekarnoputri on the top of the list, followed by its four contenders : the Golkar Party, the National Awakening Party (PKB), the United Development Party (PPP), and the National mandate Party (PAN). But under the Islamic PAN Alliance, Megawati was posited to Vice-President, during General Assembly Session. While Abdurrahman Wahid from the UDP (PPP), run after her for the President.
Based on the Law No. 4 of 1999, concerning the Composition and Status of the People’ Consultative Assembly (MPR) and the House Representative (DPR), the total number of MPR members is 700, consisting of : 500 DPR members, 135 delegates from the regions (that is, five persons each province), and 65 delegates of functional groupings. All members of the House are concurrently members of the Assembly. The MPR held general session in two stages, from October 1 to 3 and October 14-21, 1999. During the session the accountability address of president Habibie was rejected, and Habibie with drew from his presidential nomination as a candidate from the Golkar Party.
Abdurrahman Wahid, better know as Gus Dur, indisputably become Indonesia’s fourth President.
The 2001 Special Session of the People’s Consultative Assembly
There was severe tension between President Abdurrahman Wahid and the Parliament on some issue. This led to the announcement of the declaration of the state of emergency and the suspension of MPR, DPR and the Golkar Party as well as the calling for constructing organization of general election in a short time, declared by President Wahid.
Responding to the President announcement, the Parliament immediately held a special session on July 21, 2001, which was due to convene a Special Session on August 1, 2001, and asked the President to make his accountability.
The President failed to attend the MPR session and to report his accountability, making it to the MPR issued the decree (No. II/MPR/2000) that impeached Abdurrahman Wahid from presidency and appointed Vice-President Megawati Soekarnoputri the country’s 6th president of the Republic of Indonesia, and Hamzah haz vice president.
Pancasila and The Constitution
Indonesia is a democratic sates based on the Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution. Pancasila is the nation’s outlook on life, consisting of five philosophical principles which are inseparable:
1. Belief in One and Only God,
2. Just and Civilized Humanity,
3. The Unity of Indonesia,
4. Democracy Guided by the Inner Wisdom of Deliberations amongst Representatives,
5. Social Justice for the Whole of the People of Indonesia.
Pancasila is part of the Preamble of the 1945 Constitution. Since independence, the republic of Indonesia has had several constitutions, namely:
a. The 1945 Constitution: 18 August 1945 – December 27, 1949;
b. The Constitution of the Republic of the United State of Indonesia: December 27, 1949 –August 17, 1950;
c. The Provisional Constitution of 1950: August 17, 1950-July 5, 1959;
d. The 1945 Constitution; July 5, 1959 up to present.
The 1945 Constitution
The Constitution of the country is only a part of her basic law. It is the written part. In addition, there is the unwritten part of the basic law which comprises principle regulations that grow and are preserved in the conduct of state affairs.
It is also worth noting that the preamble to the constitution enfolds the basic thoughts: firstly, the sate protects all Indonesian people and the entire territory of Indonesia on the basis of unity; secondly, the state shall strive for social justice for all the people; thirdly, the state shall be based on the sovereignty of the people, on democracy and the deliberations of representatives; fourthly, the state shall be based on the belief in the One and Only God and on just civilized humanity.
The Contents of the 1945 Constitution
There are 37 Article in the constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, contained in its 16 Chapter.
Chapter I concerns the form of the state and sovereignty, staging that the State of Indonesia shall be a unitary state which has the form of a republic, and sovereignty shall be vested in the people and shall be exercised in full by the Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (People’s Consultative Assembly).
Chapter II deals with the Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, the highest institution which determines the constitution and the guidelines of the state policy.
Chapter III briefly about the presidency, Chapter IV relates to the Supreme Advisory Council, Chapter V concerns the state ministers. The regional government and the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (the House of Representatives) are described in Chapter VI and VII, Chapter VII, IX, X,XI,XII and XIII talk about finance, the judiciary power, citizenship, religion, national defense and education, respectively, Social welfare and the flag and the language are explained in Chapters XIV and XV. Chapter XVI deals with amendments to the Constitution. In addition, there are traditional provisions, consisting of four clauses, and two clauses of additional provisions.
The First Amendment to the 1945 Constitution
The People’s Consultative Assembly (MPR) has been accurately and conscientiously studying, analysing, and considering, the fundamental matters faced by the people, nation and state. It has also been using its authority based on Article 37 of the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia. In the context the MPR has amended: Article 5 paragraph (1), Article 7, Article 9, Article 13 paragraph (2), Article 14, Article 15, Article 17 paragraph (2) and (3), Article 20, Article 21 of the 1945 Constitution.
The Second Amendment to the 1045 Constitution
By the same authority based on Article 37 of the 1945 Constitution, the MPR RI is amended and/or complemented Article 18, Article 18A, Article 18B, Article 19, Article 20 paragraph (5), Article 20A, Article 22A, Article 22B, Chapter IXA, Article 25E, Chapter X, Article 26 paragraph (2) and (3), Article 27 paragraph (3), Chapter XA, Article 28A, Article 28B, Article 28C, Article 28D, Article 28E, Article 28F, Article 28G, Article 28H, Article 28I, Article 28J, Chapter XII, Article 30, Chapter XV, Article 36A, Article 36B, Article 36C of the 1945 Constitution.
Regional Administration
Indonesia is divided into 30 provinces of the first level regions including 3 special territories with the status of a province, namely the Special Territories of the Capital of Jakarta, of Aceh, and of Yogyakarta, Gorontalo become Indonesia’s 30th province in 2001.
The Governor is the Chief Executive in the province and works a staff of regional officials. Side by side is the provincial legislative, with whom the regional government concurs on regional legislation and decisions on the budget.
On the district (Kabupaten) and municipal (Kotamadya) levels, the Chief Executives are respectively, the Bupati (district head) and Walikota kodya (mayor). The Bupati/Walikota kodya concurs with the local legislative on matters relating to local government regulation and the budget. Both provincial and district municipality governments are granted autonomy.
The Governor is the Head of the Province and concurrently represents the Central Government in his region. The Bupati/Walikota kodya is the Head of the Kabupaten/Kotamadya and concurrently represents the Governor in his district/municipality.
Below the district municipal level the administrative are the Kecamatan, or Sub-District Administrations and the Kelurahan, or Village Administrations. The Kecamatan is an administrative sub-division of the Kabupaten or Kotamadya. It is headed by a Camat, The Kecamatan office is in charge of the administration of the sub-district, social welfare and economic affairs. Some national government departments have branches in the Kecamatan office.
A secretary and section heads assist the Lurah, who heads the Kelurahan, However, national government departments do not have branch offices in a Kelurahan. Both the Camat and the Lurah are civil servants appointed on merit from the ranks of local government officials.
In the Desa, or village, the village’s adult population elects the village head. The Bupati on behalf of the governor then appoints the elected candidate. In the office of the village heads there is a secretary and several section heads. A unique feature of village life is the Village Council of Elders, which is composed of 9 to 15 prominent village leaders. The Council makes decisions in concurrence with the village head.
Community living is forested by two neighbourhood organizations. “The Rukun Tetangga” takes care of social and administrative matters of a neighbourhood, such as the registration of families, security, garbage collection of number of Rukun Tetangga (smallest unit of neighbourhood).
